Core Concepts
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- Diversity
- Collectivism
- Harmony
- Struggle (Funu)
- Resilience
- Adaptability
Timor-Leste is an island nation primarily located between the Savu and Timor seas. It is home to an ethnically and linguistically diverse society made up of over 30 ethno-linguistic groups. However, a common national identity has emerged through the collective experiences of struggle (funu) and suffering (terus) over recent modern history. Timor-Leste was the first nation to gain independence in the 21st century. This was accomplished after a tumultuous process marked by significant political and social upheavals and struggles against and occupation. Such experiences have strengthened the collectivist values and culture of East Timor, as well as informed the ability of many East Timorese to be adaptable and resilient.
Landscapes and Geography
The country of Timor-Leste covers the eastern half of Timor island, the small nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and the coastal enclave of Oecussi (formerly known as Ambeno). The western half of Timor is administered as a province of Indonesia. The island of Timor features rugged mountains and hills in the interior of the island and lowland plains along the island’s southern coast. Timor island’s climate is monsoonal, governed by a wet season from December to April, and a dry season from June to October. As such, there is little seasonal variation, with the climate typically tropical with high humidity and warm temperatures. Many roads on the island become inaccessible during the wet season, preventing access to remote areas.
Timor-Leste is split into 13 administrative districts, each of which has a capital city and three to seven subdistricts.1 Subdistricts are further divided into sukus (villages), which vary between two and 18 depending on the subdistrict.1 There are approximately 498 villages throughout Timor-Leste, with most of the largest villages located in the easternmost part of the country.1 Approximately 70% of the East Timorese population reside in rural areas, while roughly 29% reside in urban areas.2
Most of the population is concentrated in the western third of the country, particularly around Dili.3 The administrative district of Dili, the country’s smallest district, contains 15 villages, which are similar to neighbourhoods (bairos) ranging from 0.06 to 2 square kilometres in size.1 This district is home to the country’s capital city, central port and commercial hub, located on the northern coast of Timor island.
Ethnic Composition
Timor-Leste is home to an ethnically and linguistically diverse population. This diversity is largely attributed to the long history of migration by people from different parts of Melanesia, Polynesia and the Asian continent.4 An East Timorese person’s and language are usually strongly connected. Each ethno-linguistic group has its own language and unique cultural identity and traditions, thus adding to the cultural diversity of Timor-Leste.
There are over 30 ethno-linguistic groups in Timor-Leste, which can be divided into two broader language families: the Austronesian and Trans-New Guinea language groups.4 Some of the larger Austronesian ethno-linguistic groups (formerly known as Malayo-Polynesian) include Tetum (36.6%), Mambai (16.6%), Baikenu (5.9%), Kemak (5.8%) and Tokudede (4.0%).5, 2 Smaller Austronesian ethno-linguistic groups include Waima’a (1.8%), Galoli (1.4%), Naueti (1.4%), Midiki (1.2%) and Idate (1.2%).5, 2 The Trans-New Guinea language group includes the ethno-linguistic groups of Makasai (10.5%), Bunak (5.5%), Fataluku (3.5%) and Makalero (0.7%).5, 2
Major Historical and Political Transitions
Colonisation by Portugal
Historical events that occurred over the last century have had profound cultural, societal, political and economic effects throughout the whole of Timor-Leste and the island of Timor. In the 16th century, Portuguese and Dutch traders first encountered the island of Timor. Not long after, the respective governments fought for dominance over the island. A series of treaties between the two colonial powers assigned the western side of Timor island to the Dutch, and the eastern side to the Portuguese.6, 7 Subsequently, in the 18th century, Portugal formally established a colony on the eastern half of Timor island, which was referred to as Portuguese Timor. In the following century, the Netherlands established the colony of the Dutch East Indies (current day Indonesia), which encompassed various islands and territories, including the western side of Timor island.
Portugal attempted an integrative colonial policy in eastern Timor, which sought to blend Portuguese administrative policy into the pre-existing traditional structures of the East Timorese.8 For example, in the 19th century, it was decided the Catholic Church (introduced by the Portuguese) would use the local language of Tetum as the primary liturgical language instead of Portuguese.4 Similarly, a Western education system was established for the East Timorese populace (although it was mainly accessed by children of local elites).8 Such policies allowed for a level of cultural assimilation and the formation of the political identity of “Portuguese Timor”.8 However, this identity continued to largely marginalise East Timorese locals. It wasn’t until the 1950s that Portugal allowed for East Timorese who were considered to be ‘civilised’ (referred to as civilizado or assimilado) to acquire Portuguese citizenship.9
Much of the East Timorese population remained apolitical during the course of Portugal's , and there were no broad-based prevalent nationalist movements or armed political struggles for independence.10 However, the 1975 ‘Revolução dos Cravos’ (Revolution of the Carnations) in Portugal overthrew the Portuguese government and ended the nearly fifty-year-long dictatorship (see Portuguese Culture for more information). Subsequently, the new government in Lisbon withdrew from its colonies, including Portuguese Timor. This marked the end of Portugal’s colonial rule over the eastern side of Timor island and allowed for local East Timorese political parties to emerge and compete for governance.
Annexation by Indonesia
After the withdrawal of Portugal from East Timor, the country began the process of as a newly independent nation. There were three dominant political parties with distinct backgrounds and interests. The Timorese Union (União Democrática Timorense) was made up of primarily conservative Portuguese-educated East Timorese elites who sought to remain connected to Portugal. The second party, the Timorese Popular Democratic Association (Associação Popular Democratica Timorense), favoured integrating East Timor with Indonesia. The third party was the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente [FRETILIN]), who represented East Timorese nationalists seeking independence and had widespread support of the mostly agrarian populace of the country.4
Disputes between political parties resulted in the outbreak of armed conflict, including Portuguese colonial police and local East Timorese soldiers.10, 6 With the conflict unable to be controlled, Portuguese authorities fled and the East Timorese military sided with FRETILIN, resulting in the end of the civil conflict.10 On the 28th of November 1975, FRETILIN declared East Timor as independent. However, the country’s newly won independence was short lived, as Indonesia invaded the country ten days later. War quickly ensued between the newly independent East Timor (led by FRETILIN) and the Indonesian military.4 By mid-1976, Indonesia had formally annexed East Timor and within the next three years, the territory became a province of Indonesia (known as Timor Timur).4
Indonesia’s annexation of East Timor saw significant demographic shifts in the country. There was a large increase of Indonesian administrators, entrepreneurs and settlers who migrated to the country as part of Indonesia’s transmigration programme (known as Transmigrasi).10 This saw increasing clashes between largely Muslim Indonesian migrants and local Catholic East Timorese.10 The Indonesian government also invested significant resources and funds into developing infrastructure and the education system.4
Independence
In response to increasing pressure and shifts in the political situation of Indonesia, the country authorised a referendum in East Timor on 30th August 1999.7 Almost four-fifths of voters (78.5%) voted for independence, thereby rejecting the option to be an autonomous province of Indonesia.4, 7 East Timor was returned to its pre-annexation status but under the supervision of the United Nations. Devastatingly, the transfer of power was accompanied by widespread violence and destruction, perpetrated by anti-independence militias supported by the Indonesian military.4, 6, 7 There were also large numbers of people who became refugees who crossed the border into West Timor (Timor Barat), including Indonesians and those in support of Indonesia.10
The period between the end of Portugal’s colonial rule and the end of Indonesia’s annexation and control of East Timor is marked by significant loss and suffering. Conservative estimates suggest that between 1974 and 1999, approximately 102,800 civilians died from conflict-related causes, such as famine-related deaths and political violence-related deaths.11, 12 However, the civilian death toll could be over 183,000, with many deaths undocumented during the 2004 reporting period due to various factors such as a lack of surviving relatives, family members who had subsequently left the country, and a lack of grave markers.11, 12
Of the 102,800 conservatively estimated deaths, 18,600 were civilians who were executed or otherwise disappeared. A further 84,200 died from hunger and illness due to the widespread destruction of agricultural lands and infrastructure, which caused famines, proliferation of disease and displacement.10 There was also widespread sexual violence against East Timorese women, with hundreds of documented cases of rape, sexual harassment and sexual slavery, most of which was committed by Indonesian military and its associates.13 Such acts of violence caused shame and family conflict, disrupted cultural patterns and traditions, and also exacerbated some of the pre-existing gendered inequalities in East Timorese society.4, 13
After a transitional period under the administration of the United Nations between 1999 and 2002, independence was achieved, marking the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste as the first new nation of the 21st century. However, the chaotic withdrawal of Indonesian forces coupled with decades of violence, property destruction and displacement of persons left a difficult legacy of suffering and social dislocation Timor-Leste continues to navigate.14
Official Languages and Different Usages
In present-day Timor-Leste, the indigenous language of Tetum (or Tetun) is the lingua franca of the country.5 There are two dialects of Tetum spoken in the country. Tetum Terik is a more localised form of Tetum that has much less foreign influence and is spoken by approximately 6.0% of the population.2 Tetum Prasa is the most dominant form of Tetum and the most widely spoken in the country (30.6%).2 The dialect of Tetum Prasa (literally “city Tetum”) is primarily spoken in the capital of Dili, and has an extensive number of Portuguese loan words.
Non-local languages also spoken in Timor-Leste include English (0.6%), Indonesian (0.2%), Portuguese (0.1%) and Chinese (0.07%).2 Portuguese and Tetum are considered to be the country’s two official languages. Though few people speak Portuguese as their native language, Portuguese is still used in legal, government and education settings.6 Meanwhile, Indonesian and English are working languages, with the latter used mainly in business settings and by foreign agencies.6
East Timorese are often multilingual. However, knowledge of certain languages can differ depending on the generation due to changing sociolinguistic conditions and language policies throughout the country’s political history.15 For those who grew up in the 1960s and early 1970s, Portuguese was used in official, educational and religious settings.10 Portuguese was subsequently banned during the Indonesian occupation (1975-1999), and Bahasa Indonesian became the official language used in schools. Meanwhile, the local language of Tetum continued to be the primary language used by the Catholic Church, which facilitated the popularity and spread of Tetum throughout the country.15 Once independence was achieved, Portuguese became an official language again, alongside Tetum.
Generational Experiences
The constant political changes of Timor-Leste within a short period of time have led to some differences of experiences among the generations. Studies suggest that nearly all East Timorese were affected by displacement and resettlement at some point.14 For example, those who lived under Indonesia’s occupation of Timor-Leste experienced constant movement between roadside villages and nearby forests or mountains during outbursts of conflicts.16 In some cases, many fled their original homes, taking refuge in mountains for prolonged periods of time and emerging only after the end of the occupation.16
Political independence created an opportunity for many families and communities to return and reclaim their ancestral and inherited lands, and restore their ‘sacred house’ (see Local and Indigenous Worldviews in Religion for more information). So far, it is mostly older members of the community who have chosen to return.17 However, this opportunity has presented a difficult decision for those in younger generations who need to consider the cost of starting afresh and moving further away from educational and health care services.17, 14 Others may have to navigate an added complex set of social relations – such as whether they will be welcomed or if exogamous marriage customs will be challenged (see Dating and Marriage in Family).14
At times, the differences in generational experiences have led to social tensions. The older generation raised during Portuguese rule dominated and directed much of the country’s development in the independence period. The following generation, who were raised under Indonesia’s occupation, have thus at times felt alienated from the process of nation-building, and that their contributions to resistance as youth and students have been overlooked.18 Such dynamics are also undergoing changes with the emergence of the younger post-independence generation.
National Identity, Struggle (Funu) and Suffering (Terus)
The major historical transitions of Timor-Leste have played an important role in shaping the country’s current national identity and forging a sense of unity across people of various ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. A common national identity has emerged through the collective experiences of struggle (funu) and suffering (terus) during the country’s , occupation and independence.18 Further, the use of the local language Tetum and the longstanding prevalence and popularity of Catholicism have been more permanent national symbols that citizens have been able to identify with regardless of political governance. Visual representations are often used to express the East Timorese national identity (such as various national flags), in part due to persistently low literacy levels (see Education and Literacy).18
Though nation-building and national identity formation have brought about consensus and a common identity, such processes have at times led to frictions within East Timorese society.18 Most notable is the intense period of civil disorder, inter-communal violence and property destruction that occurred during 2006 in the capital of Dili – 38 people were killed and over 100,000 people were displaced.18, 14, 10 The country also continues the process of consolidating its territorial boundaries with neighbouring nations.9
The national identity that emerged in the wake of independence continues to be reshaped and debated in this new post-independence period. While the dual concepts of struggle (funu) and suffering (terus) reflect the collective experiences of the past, these concepts continue to be applied to the contemporary East Timorese experience. For example, they have helped frame some of the current obstacles, such as ongoing socioeconomic challenges.18
Education, Literacy and Social Stratification
Constant changes to the socio-political conditions throughout the mid-20th century and early 21st century have impacted access to education. When Timor-Leste was a colony of Portugal, the Catholic Church played a vital role in the delivery of education and health care during the colonial period.19 However, by 2001, approximately 90% of schools were destroyed.20 These schools were responsible for the employment of roughly 6,000 teachers and education of 240,000 children.20
The rebuilding process quickly progressed, with the number of teachers doubling in the period between 2002 and 2014, and student enrolments rising to 364,000.20 Nonetheless, education and literacy rates continue to be an ongoing challenge. More than half of all women 45 years or older and more than half of all men 55 years or older are illiterate.21 Illiteracy also affects a portion of the youth, with 14.4% of males and 14.0% of females between the ages of 15 to 19 being illiterate.21
Education and literacy tends to be a key factor in terms of socioeconomic status. The adult literacy rate is approximately 87.8% in urban areas, but is just slightly above half (53.7%) in rural areas.21 Many of those residing in rural parts of the country are subsistence farmers who use agriculture to maintain their family but otherwise live outside the cash economy.6 Of the entire population over the age of 10 who are employed, 64.2% are self-employed farmers.22 The next most common form of employment is the government, which makes up 13.5% of the working population.22 Though the oil and gas industry accounts for up to 90% of the country’s gross domestic product, few people are employed in the sector.23 Moreover, youth unemployment continues to be an ongoing struggle, with 74% of the population under 35 unemployed.23
Education and socioeconomic position have been some of the push factors contributing to migration. For instance, since all East Timorese born before 2002 are entitled to Portuguese citizenship, many in the economic position to do so have moved to Portugal for study and employment.15 There are also East Timorese communities found in Indonesia, the Philippines and the United Kingdom.3 Some have also migrated to Australia under the Family Migration Scheme (see East Timorese in Australia). Those who move abroad tend to send remittances back to their families in Timor-Leste as a way to provide support.24
Collectivism and Harmony
Many East Timorese place a high value on and unity with others, maintaining a strong connection with their community and relatives. People are often deeply involved with the collective life of their entire community in Timor-Leste, with social events usually incorporating the entire neighbourhood or village. A unified and interdependent community (or extended family network) provides a support system that an individual can rely on daily. For example, it is common for an East Timorese to be able to depend on their social connections for assistance in virtually any activity, such as preparing for a major lifecycle event (e.g. birthdays, weddings or funerals), building a home, or completing agricultural activities. These systems are often seen as necessary due to economic hardship or the unreliability or inaccessibility of official services.
In collectivist cultures such as Timor-Leste, people tend to feel a strong sense of responsibility to those around them. Cooperation and collective achievement is often emphasised over self-fulfilment and personal gain in order to maintain social . Similarly, East Timorese are expected to uphold their duties, responsibilities and obligations to one another (such as caring for parents into old age). People tend to be conscious of how their behaviour or failure to uphold social expectations may reflect on their family or community; many value the collective reputation, dignity and honour of the group. Generally speaking, reserved conduct is the norm in Timor-Leste as people wish to maintain harmony between each other. For example, East Timorese tend to speak indirectly to avoid conflict.
Adaptability and Resilience
Personal and collective experiences of adversity have influenced many East Timorese to be adaptable and resilient. Indeed, adaptability has been a hallmark of East Timorese culture. Many take pride in the fact that elements of Timor-Leste’s traditional culture were able to adapt and survive in spite of political and social circumstances. For example, though many were displaced and resettled, communities were able to maintain social institutions of customary authority.14 Traditional arts have also survived and are now being celebrated and shared. For instance, it is common for East Timorese to offer a tais (a vibrant handwoven textile traditionally presented by being draped around the recipient’s neck) as a gift to both locals and foreign visitors.