Religion
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Pakistan was formed as an Islamic Republic, establishing Islam as the official state religion. According to the 2017 Census, 96.5% of Pakistanis identified as Muslims – although unofficial estimates vary widely regarding the size of minority religious groups.1
The majority of Muslims in Pakistan follow the Sunni branch of Islam (approximately 80-85%), while Shi'a Muslims are generally believed to comprise 10-15% of the population.1 Despite being a minority within the country, the Shi’a population in Pakistan is the second largest in the world.2 This population also includes many ethnic Hazaras who were displaced from Afghanistan, numbering approximately 650,000 to 900,000, most of whom reside in the city of Quetta.3 The Pakistani Shi’a community also encompasses followers of various branches and sects, such as Imāmiyya (Twelver), Isma'ili, and Bohra (a branch of Ismaili).4
The majority of Sunni Muslims in Pakistan follow the Hanafi School of thought. This interpretation of Islamic law is noted for using equity (پḥs) to emphasise human reason in Islamic jurisprudence. The Hanafi school tends to acknowledge the context of the modern world while honouring traditional Islamic customs. It is generally considered to be less rigid than other Sunni traditions.
All law and legal rulings in Pakistan are interpreted through Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and are required to comply with Islamic injunctions.5 There is a legal presumption that a legal matter falls under the rules of Hanafi jurisprudence (fiqh), in reflection of the Sunni majority.5 Nonetheless, a sizable population in Pakistan follows the Shi’a Ithna Ashari school. In 2021, Pakistan enacted separate laws that permit matters related to divorce and inheritance of Shi’a Muslims to be interpreted and decided by the Shi’a school of thought.5
Sufism in Pakistan
Sufism, the esoteric dimension of Islam, has a strong, long-standing presence in Pakistan. This mystic form of Islamic practice emphasises introspection and spiritual closeness with God, particularly through euphoric worship and other devotional practices. Sufism is not a distinct sect but rather a component of one’s religious identity, with Sufi orders existing within both Sunni and Shi’a Islam.6
Most Sufis in Pakistan are connected to a religious order (known as tariqa or silsila), mainly the Chishti, Suhrawardiyya, Naqshbandi and Qadri orders.7 A 2012 Pew Research Center survey found that 17% of Muslims in Pakistan belonged to a Sufi order.6
While relatively few Pakistani Muslims describe themselves as Sufis, Sufi teachings and philosophy have an enduring influence on religious thinking and shape many people's personal understanding and connection to Islam.8 The cultural impact of Sufism is also evident in Pakistani literature, poetry, and music, much of which is inspired by traditional Sufi practices and folk culture.9 Many Pakistanis are proud of the country’s connection to celebrated Sufi saints and poets, such as Rumi and Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai.
Religious Minorities and Freedom in Pakistan
According to the 2017 Census, approximately 3.5% of the Pakistani population belongs to a non-Muslim religious minority.1 This figure includes Ahmadis, Hindus, Christians (Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and Protestants), Parsis (Zoroastrians) and Baha’is. There are also small communities of Sikhs, Buddhists, Kalash, Kihals, and Jains.
The Pakistani constitution provides a theoretical guarantee of freedom of religion, asserting individuals’ right to profess, practice, and propagate their faith. In practice, however, religious expression and public practice are subject to blasphemy laws, which restrict speech or action in the interest of protecting the ‘glory of Islam’.4 The legal boundaries and application of these regulations are often ambiguous, influenced by the Sunni clergy’s religious and moral interpretations of blasphemy. This can result in discriminatory practices that disproportionately affect religious minorities who hold beliefs or practices that deviate from the mainstream Sunni interpretation of Islam.
In Pakistan, public allegations of blasphemy often jeopardise an individual’s reputation and are serious enough to pose a threat of societal violence. The threat of blasphemy accusations, in itself, effectively suppresses freedom of speech and religious expression regardless of legal action.
Critics argue blasphemy laws are commonly imposed in strategic ways that deny religious minorities fundamental rights and political power.4 Religious minorities are subject to societal harassment, discrimination, and threats of violence, as well as efforts to coerce individuals to convert to Islam. The 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom recorded numerous instances where Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Ahmadi Muslims, and Shia Muslims were targeted and killed in attacks believed to be motivated by religion or accusations of blasphemy.4 Sufi communities and holy shrines have also been targeted by militant Islamic extremists, who consider the veneration of Sufi saints a form of idolatry.8
Ahmadis
Ahmadi Muslims have been the subject of national discourse for decades, with many Pakistani clerics and political leaders perceiving them as religious heretics.10 While Ahmadis consider themselves to be Muslims rather than a non-Muslim minority group, the Pakistani penal code explicitly prohibits them from identifying themselves as Muslims. As a result, Ahmadis are excluded from basic civic activities and governance that require them to declare themselves non-Muslims (such as voting and obtaining a passport).10
The penal code specifically bans Ahmadis from ‘posing as Muslims’, effectively criminalising their religious identity and practice. For example, they are prohibited from referring to their places of worship as ‘mosques’. The marginalisation and persecution of Ahmadis have reached extreme levels in recent years, resulting in a sustained campaign of violence.10
Religious Freedom and Minorities
According to the 2017 Census, approximately 3.6% of the Pakistani population belongs to a non-Muslim religious minority.14 This figure includes Ahmadis, Hindus, Christians (Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and Protestants), Parsis (Zoroastrians) and Baha’is. There are also small communities of Sikhs, Buddhists, Kalash, Kihals, and Jains.
The Pakistani constitution provides a theoretical guarantee of freedom of religion, asserting individuals’ right to profess, practice, and propagate their faith. In practice, however, religious expression and public practice are subject to blasphemy laws, which restrict speech or action in the interest of protecting the ‘glory of Islam’.15 The legal boundaries and application of these regulations are often ambiguous, influenced by the Sunni clergy’s religious and moral interpretations of blasphemy. This can result in discriminatory practices that disproportionately affect religious minorities who hold beliefs or practices that deviate from the mainstream Sunni interpretation of Islam.
In Pakistan, public allegations of blasphemy often jeopardise an individual’s reputation and are serious enough to pose a threat of societal violence. The threat of blasphemy accusations, in itself, effectively suppresses freedom of speech and religious expression regardless of legal action.
Critics argue blasphemy laws are commonly imposed in strategic ways that deny religious minorities fundamental rights and political power.16 Religious minorities are subject to societal harassment, discrimination, and threats of violence, as well as efforts to coerce individuals to convert to Islam. The 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom recorded numerous instances where Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Ahmadi Muslims, and Shia Muslims were targeted and killed in attacks believed to be motivated by religion or accusations of blasphemy.17 Sufi communities and holy shrines have also been targeted by militant Islamic extremists, who consider the veneration of Sufi saints a form of idolatry.18
Ahmadis
Ahmadi Muslims have been the subject of national discourse for decades, with many Pakistani clerics and political leaders perceiving them as religious heretics.19 While Ahmadis consider themselves to be Muslims rather than a non-Muslim minority group, the Pakistani penal code explicitly prohibits them from identifying themselves as Muslims. As a result, Ahmadis are excluded from basic civic activities and governance that require them to declare themselves non-Muslims (such as voting and obtaining a passport).20
The penal code specifically bans Ahmadis from ‘posing as Muslims’, effectively criminalising their religious identity and practice. For example, they are prohibited from referring to their places of worship as ‘mosques’. The marginalisation and persecution of Ahmadis have reached extreme levels in recent years, resulting in a sustained campaign of violence.21
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1 Central Intelligence Agency, 2020
2 Central Intelligence Agency, 2020
3 Rieck, 2018
4 Minority Rights Group, 2018
5 Office of International Religious Freedom, 2022
6 Mehmood et al., 2022
7 Mehmood et al., 2022
8 Mehmood et al., 2022
9 Pew Research Center, 2012
10 Baloch, 2019
11 Pew Research Center, 2012
12 Brehmer, 2022
13 Hays, 2024
14 Central Intelligence Agency, 2020
15 Office of International Religious Freedom, 2022
16 Office of International Religious Freedom, 2022
17 Office of International Religious Freedom, 2022
18 Brehmer, 2022
19 Minority Rights Group, 2022
20 Minority Rights Group, 2022
21 Minority Rights Group, 2022