������Ƶ

Sacred Texts

The Buddhist corpus is expansive and not contained within one single book. Buddhist texts were first orally transmitted, then written down centuries after the Buddha’s death. The earliest forms of Buddhist texts reflect this nature, as they contain many repetitions, standardised phrasing and poetic rhythms to aid memorisation.

• �վ��辱ṭa�첹: The term ‘�վ��辱ṭa�첹’ (Three Baskets) is traditionally used to refer to Buddhist scripture. In the Therāvada tradition, it is also sometimes referred to as the ‘Pāli canon’. The �վ��辱ṭa�첹 is divided into three collections: rules relating to monastic discipline (Vinaya Piṭaka), discourses attributed to the Buddha (Sutta Piṭaka), and philosophical teachings (Abhidhamma Piṭaka). Each collection contains hundreds of texts within them. The �վ��辱ṭa�첹 is the most sacred and authoritative collection of texts in Theravāda Buddhism. The Theravāda version of the �վ��辱ṭa�첹 is considered to be a ‘closed canon’, meaning it is not open to additions.
• Vinaya Piṭaka: The Vinaya Piṭaka is the collection of rules relating to monastic discipline. It primarily contains guidelines on ethical conduct and social behaviour for monks as well as institutional guidelines for the ����ṅg��.
• Sutta Piṭaka: The Sutta Piṭaka is the collection of discourses, anecdotes and examples, mostly attributed to the Buddha, that reflect his teachings and understanding of reality and the path to enlightenment.
• Abhidhamma Piṭaka: The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the collection of teachings that are “beyond the Dhamma”, focusing on the philosophy and metaphysics of Buddhism. This set of teachings emerged centuries later than the previous collections.
• ����ٲ��첹 Tales: The ����ٲ��첹 Tales are a set of stories contained with the Sutta Piṭaka that detail the previous rebirths of the Buddha.
• ��ṭṭ�󲹰첹�ٳ��� and Ṭīk��: The ��ṭṭ�󲹰첹�ٳ��� is a collection of literature composed in Pāli that commentates on the �վ��辱ṭa�첹. On the other hand, the Ṭīk�� refers to sub-commentarial literature, namely, commentaries on the Āṭṭ�󲹰첹�ٳ���. While all Theravādin traditions consider the �վ��辱ṭa�첹 (the Pāli root text) as authoritative, varying degrees of authority are given to the commentarial (��ṭṭ�󲹰첹�ٳ���) and sub-commentarial (Ṭīk��) literature.
• Vernacular Literature: Aside from Theravāda texts composed in Pāli, there is a more recent corpus of literature composed in local vernaculars. For instance, there are many important texts written in Lao, Burmese, Khmer, Thai and Sinhalese. While important, vernacular literature is not given the same level of authority as the Pāli body of literature.

General Beliefs

Dhamma

The term ‘dhamma’ (dharma in Sanskrit) is a core concept in Buddhism that has various meanings. Generally, the term can refer to the natural order or universal law that underpins all existence at all times. This reality was realised (not invented) by the Buddha when he became enlightened. The term dhamma also refers to the totality of Buddhist teachings regarding this truth and particularly the way of practice to realise this truth. These teachings contain descriptions and explanations of the underlying universal law.

Cycle of Rebirth (����ṃs�����)

����ṃs����� (literally “wandering”) is a broad concept that refers to the beginningless and endless cycle of rebirth that beings undergo until they attain enlightenment (�Ծ�������Բ�). Individuals are thought to transmigrate from one existence to the next depending on their kamma (i.e. moral conduct). Ignorance (������������), which refers to ignorance of reality as represented in the insights of the Four Noble Truths, is said to be the root cause of rebirth. Ignorance is co-existent with the three roots of unwholesomeness known as greed, hatred and delusion.

Dependent Origination

The doctrine of Dependent Origination is a profound teaching of a twelvefold chain of causation that underpins ordinary existence. It is said to be the primary insight that heralded in the Buddha’s enlightenment. The doctrine states that nothing comes into being simply through its own, or a creator’s, power or volition (such as a God or a soul), but rather that all phenomena arise in dependence on some other cause or condition. Dependent origination is often taught to help beings understand how both physical things and mental/emotional experiences arise and cease.

Kamma

The concept of ‘kamma’ (Pāli, karma in Sanskrit) broadly refers to actions. It is often understood as a theory of ‘cause and effect’, whereby one’s freely chosen and intentional actions (whether wholesome or unwholesome) lead to some sort of effect or consequence. It is generally believed that an individual cannot escape the consequences of their actions (unless they become liberated), and as such, each person is responsible for their own moral well-being.

It is thought that karmic repercussions can develop in four ways: the ripening of an individual's kamma may occur in this life (�徱�ٳٳ�-��󲹳�����-����岹��ī�ⲹ-�첹������); in the next life (�ܱ貹�貹���Ჹ-����岹��ī�ⲹ-�첹������); in subsequent lives (���貹����貹�����ⲹ-����岹��ī�ⲹ-�첹������); or nullified (ahosi-kamma). It is also said that with the development of the mind through morality, meditative absorption, and wisdom, the effects of previous unwholesome actions may be alleviated somewhat.

According to Buddhist thought, an individual’s current life is determined to some extent by the actions of their previous lives. For many Buddhists, the doctrine of kamma also provides an explanation as to why they may have certain positive or negative experiences in their life, such as sickness or good fortune.

Absence of Self (Anattā)

In Buddhist thought, existence is seen as an interrelated flux of material and psychical events that have no permanent or independent existence on their own (see ‘Dependent Origination’). As such, there is no permanent or fixed ‘individual’, ‘self’ or ‘soul’, but rather, a collection of aggregates (khandha) that undergo a continuous process of change. Accordingly, it is the illusion of having a permanent, unchanging self that fuels perpetual rebirth.

Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths refer to four foundational and interrelated propositions of Buddhist thought that were articulated by the Buddha in his first sermon. Interpretations of the doctrine may differ somewhat among the different branches and schools of Buddhism.

1. The First Noble Truth: “There is ‘��ܰ���’�ĝ. This term is often translated into English as ‘suffering’, but the concept also refers to a sense of dissatisfaction or uneasiness. It points to the experience of all existence as being unsatisfactory due to the inherent instability in the changing flux of conditions.
2. The Second Noble Truth: “There is an origin of ��ܰ���”, refers to the cause of suffering (dukkha) arising from craving (�ٲ�ṇh��, literally ‘thist’) for sensual pleasure, existence or non-existence. This craving subsequently leads to clinging or attachment, which thus causes suffering. Underlying this experience of craving and clinging is ignorance.
3. The Third Noble Truth: “There is the cessation of ��ܰ���”, refers to the end of suffering through removing its causes, namely, craving and clinging. The ultimate cause, ignorance, is eliminated through a deep realisation of the true nature of reality, thus attaining �Ծ�������Բ� (literally translated as ‘extinguishing’ or ‘blowing out’, but often taken to mean ‘enlightenment’). When an individual attains enlightenment, the cause of dukkha has been identified and destroyed, which in turn also destroys any future effects (such as rebirth).
4. The Fourth Noble Truth: “There is the path leading to the cessation of ��ܰ���”. In the Theravāda tradition, this is the Noble Eightfold Path, which contains eight important interrelated factors that collectively lead to individual enlightenment: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Noble Eightfold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path is the last of the Four Noble Truths that provides a set of practical guidelines which leads an individual out of the cycle of rebirth (����ṃs�����) towards enlightenment (�Ծ�������Բ�). The eight components of the path provide a normative structure on how to correctly live and cultivate oneself.

• Right View: The correct understanding of existence as explained in the teachings of the Four Noble Truths, dependent origination and the cycle of rebirth (����ṃs�����).
• Right Intention: The cultivating of thoughts pertaining to renunciation (i.e., abandoning of sensuality), good-will (i.e., the abandoning of ill-will), and harmlessness (i.e., the abandoning of harm), as well as cultivating an attitude free from greed, hatred and delusion.
• Right Speech: The refraining from false speech, divisive speech, harmful speech, and irreverent speech.
• Right Action: The abstaining from the harmful actions of killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct.
• Right Livelihood: The pursuing of a career or livelihood that does not involve causing harm, deception or selfish pursuits, such as exploiting others for personal gain.
• Right Effort: The directing of one’s effort towards: preventing unwholesome states of mind that have not yet arisen; abandoning unwholesome states that have already arisen; developing wholesome states that have not yet arisen; and cultivating and maintaining wholesome states that have already arisen.
• Right Mindfulness: The developing of awareness of the arising, falling, and arising and falling of: the body; feelings (pleasant, unpleasant and neutral); the mind; and dhammas (a difficult term to translate in this context, but often referred to as ‘phenomena’, ‘mind-objects’, or ‘physical and mental processes’).
• Right Concentration: The attaining of four sequential states of meditative absorption (�����Բ�): Withdrawing from sensuality and unskilful mental qualities; stilling of thoughts; attaining equanimity and mindfulness; and abiding in pure equanimity and mindfulness.