Doctrines and Philosophy
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Religious Texts
One major characteristic of Hindu traditions is the fact that no single book or text serves as the basis for the religion's philosophy, doctrine, rituals and practices. Rather, there are a multitude of texts mainly written in the ancient Sanskrit language that have been translated. There are also several major contributions found in vernacular languages, such as Tamil.
Hindu texts are usually distinguished as either ‘śܳپ’ (‘revealed’) or ‘ṛt’ (‘remembered’). Śruti refers to texts that were directly and divinely revealed to great sages (ṣiǰmaharishi) long ago. Meanwhile, ṛt texts are believed to have emerged afterwards, inspired by the contents of the ‘revealed’ texts.
Śruti (Revealed)
- Vedas: The Vedas are ancient, divinely revealed texts. There are four Vedas: the Ṛg Veda (book of hymns), Yajur Veda (book of sacrificial rites), Sāma Veda (book of chants) and Atharva Veda (book of spells and charms). Although parts of the Veda are quoted in nearly all rituals, the contents and meaning of the texts are largely unknown to most Hindus except priests, religious leaders or scholars.
- 貹Ծṣa: The 貹Ծṣa (also spelt Upanishads) are philosophical appendices of the Vedas. There are twelve major 貹Ծṣa that vary in length, content and writing style. The main focus of the texts is how to free oneself from material attachments and to unify the individual soul (ٳ) with the ultimate soul (brahman).
Smṛti (Remembered)
- Śٰ: The term ‘śٰ’ in Sanskrit (also spelt shastra) means ‘teaching’ or ‘instruction’. There are various sāstras that cover a variety of topics including astrology, guides to public and domestic rituals, economics and architecture. For example, the Dharmaśٰ is a body of Sanskrit literature that provides instruction on ethical situations depending on one’s duty (dharma).
- Epics: The epics refer to two highly respected poems: the 峾ⲹṇa and the Ѳٲ. These two together make up the literature known as ‘پ’ (roughly translated as ‘history'). The central theme of the epics is the protection of and adherence to dharma in order to maintain a balance between the forces of good and evil in the universe. The epics are often retold, enacted, depicted in artworks, sung and watched on television.
- Bhagavad Gītā:ճBhagavad Gītā (the ‘Gita’ for short) is a section in the Ѳٲ that is often highly revered on its own. The Gita is often thought of as a Hindu manual for spiritual life, presenting three possible salvific paths (‘’): the duty-based household life, devotion-based practices and knowledge-based renunciation.
- ʳܰṇa: The ʳܰṇa are an extensive collection of myths, legends and genealogies about the Hindu pantheon. ʳܰṇa tend to be sectarian; some are devoted to Shiva, some to Vishnu and some to various goddesses. One of the most popular is the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, which details the incarnations of Vishnu, especially the childhood of Krishna.
General Beliefs
Ultimate Soul (Brahman) and Individual Soul (Ātman)
One concept that underpins the philosophies and doctrines of contemporary Hinduism is the concept of ‘brahman’ (‘ultimate soul’). Some consider brahman to be the ultimate principle of reality, from which all things emerge, exist and return. In turn, all things are one and the same despite different bodies and experiences.
It is also thought that each individual soul (‘ٳ’ǰ‘jīvٳ’) shares an intimate connection with brahman. A common spiritual goal expressed is the unification of the individual soul (ٳ) with the brahman. Meanwhile, some other theological positions and devotional movements affirm the distinction between the brahman and ٳ.
Hindus also differ as to whether brahman is best understood as lacking any qualities or attributes (i.e. an impersonal God) or as a personal God as manifested in the Hindu pantheon. The sacred sound of ‘ṃ’ or ‘ṃ’ (ॐ) is believed to represent brahman.
The Hindu Pantheon
Hinduism is sometimes thought to be polytheistic (worship of more than one deity) due to the expansive pantheon of gods and goddesses. Some consider all deities in Hinduism to be manifestations of brahman. Hinduism is also sometimes referred to as a ‘henotheistic’ religion, in which an individual may worship one god or goddess without denying the existence of other gods or goddesses. Indeed, it is common to find most Hindus commemorating, evoking or venerating more than one god or goddess. The decision as to which deities to worship is usually driven by family traditions (such as the temples one’s family attends, allegiances and the religious leaders of the family) and local or regional influences.
All gods and goddesses have multiple functions or abilities that usually determine when and why they are evoked. There are also many regional and local gods and goddesses who preside over small villages and towns. Their patronage is often sought during natural disasters or epidemics. Major gods include:
- հūپ: The three male gods (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) who make up the head of the hierarchy in the Hindu pantheon. Their respective roles relate to creating, sustaining and dissolving each universe cycle. See ‘հūپ’ in Narratives and Myths to learn more about each god.
- Consorts of the հūپ: Each of the three major gods has female consorts. Sarasvatī (Brahma's female companion depicted as either his consort, daughter or granddaughter), Lakṣmī (Vishnu’s consort) and Parvatī (Shiva’s consort).
- ٱī: The term ‘ī’ is a broad term meaning ‘goddess’. Mahāī (Great Goddess) or Śakti (divine female creative energy) refers to the ultimate goddess or female power which manifests in all goddesses. The female divine is considerably important in particular Hindu traditions. She usually manifests as a benevolent figure (e.g. Lakṣmī and Parvatī) or as a fierce figure (e.g. Kālī or Durgā).
- 峾: 峾 is a highly revered incarnation of Vishnu and the protagonist of the 峾ⲹṇa. People tend to worship or devote themselves to 峾 due to his desirable attributes as a role model of right action and reason.
- Krishna: Krishna (also known as ṛṣṇa) is another highly revered incarnation of Vishnu and one of the main characters in the Ѳٲ. He is often adored for his personality and playfulness. Krishna is also the focus of many devotional offshoots of Hinduism.
- Ganesh: Ganesh (also known as Ҳṇeś or Ҳṇa貹پ) is the elephant-headed god who is the son of Shiva. Ganesh is usually worshipped before any major enterprise or event due to his ability to remove obstacles.
- ᲹԳܳ: ᲹԳܳ is 峾's monkey army commander and devotee. He is often worshipped as a subsidiary figure in temples dedicated to 峾 or in shrines solely devoted to the monkey god. ᲹԳܳ is upheld as the ideal model of devotion.
Incarnations (Avatara)
The term ‘avatar’ derives from the Sanskrit word ‘avatara’, which means ‘descent'. It refers to the incarnation of a deity in animal or human form to counteract a particular evil on earth. The idea of avatars usually refers to the god Vishnu and his incarnations. The concept is also sometimes used in a broader sense to refer to any manifestation of a deity in a particular physical form, including gurus.
The Cycle of Rebirth (ṃs)
ṃs (literally “wandering”) is a broad concept that refers to the beginningless and endless cycle of rebirth. According to Hindu thought, an individual soul (ٳ) transmigrates from one body to another in a continuous cycle. The kind of life one experiences and their next rebirth is dependent on their accumulated karma.
Karma
The concept of ‘karma’ broadly refers to actions. It is often understood as a theory of ‘cause and effect', whereby one's intentional actions lead to some effect or consequence. The individual soul (ٳ) carries all positive, negative and neutral karma. The kind of body the individual soul inhabits in their next birth is determined by the karma they accumulated in their previous lives. More positive karma leads to a more positive rebirth of the individual soul while negative karma leads to a more negative rebirth. For many Hindus, the concept of karma explains why they may have positive or negative experiences in their life, such as sickness or good fortune.
Dharma
The term ‘dharma’ refers to a complex concept with various meanings. It is commonly taken to mean ‘truth’, ‘order’, ‘law’, ‘teaching’, ‘virtuous behaviour’, ‘religion’ or ‘duty’. The term ‘dharma’ captures the Hindu thought that each being has its own duty they ought to follow. To act according to one's dharma is to act appropriately in the context of which action they should perform. Thus, dharma is context-sensitive, meaning that duties differ according to one's age, life station, gender and caste. This idea of personal dharma is sometimes known as ‘svadharma’.
Life Stations (Āśrama)
The concept of life stations (ś) refers to four life stages a Hindu passes through. These four stages are student (), householder (ṛhٳ), forest dweller (Բٳ) and renouncer (ṃn). There are specific duties one ought to follow at each stage. For example, a student focuses on learning, a householder raises a family, a forest dweller leaves their household (passing the responsibility to the next generation) in order to focus on studying sacred texts, and a renouncer abandons the material world in favour of meditation and spiritual practices. Not all Hindus follow this structure. Some may choose to be a renouncer straight away (such as a swami), while others may choose to remain with their family. The idea of life stations is connected to the concepts of duty (dharma), caste (ṇa) and goals (ܰṣārٳ).
Goals of Human Life (Puruṣārtha)
Hindu texts have described four general aims to strive towards during a lifetime. These four goals (ܰṣārٳ) are artha (wealth or prosperity), 峾 (sensory fulfilment), dharma (fulfilling duty) and ǰṣa (liberation). Just like the idea of life stations (ś), not all Hindus pursue all goals.
Paths (Mārga)
The influential Hindu text known as the Bhagavad Gītā presents three overlapping paths () towards liberation. All paths are thought to reach the same goal of liberating the soul from the cycle of rebirth.
- Path of Action: The path of ritual action or duty (karma) entails a selfless service to society by adhering to one’s dharma. This path is largely connected to the caste system and household life such as bearing children.
- Path of Knowledge: The path of knowledge (jñāna) is to strive to obtain knowledge of brahman through appropriate austerities. This entails the use of meditative concentration, studying under a special religious teacher (guru) and undergoing ethical and contemplative training. This path is often associated with renunciates or monastics.
- Path of Devotion: The path of devotion (bhakti) entails the love, surrender and devotion for a personal God. Some of the practices associated with this path are participating in worship (at home and temples) as well as maintenance of the shrine and ūپ of the deity. This is thought to be for all humans irrespective of their social position (e.g. caste) or gender.